How does Cultural Norms Influence Entrepreneurial Intention? A Cross Cultural Study
Keywords:
Entrepreneurship, Psychology, Intention, Culture, Subjective Norm
Abstract
Entrepreneurial Intention is commonly attributed to the interaction of cultural values and attitude; however, cultural values vary according to the context in which they are developed. The following study intends to show how Subjective Norms affect intentions of self-employment, as both, a direct factor and mediated through attitudinal values: Perceived Behavioral Control and Desirability, within a cross-cultural framework. A sample of 736 students from four different countries: Spain, Portugal, Mexico and India were used. Results yielded a direct relationship between Subjective Norm and Intention in all countries, except India. When mediated through attitude, the relation becomes stronger, even more when it’s through Desirability, except in Portugal, which the relationship is stronger directly through Social Norms. India does not show a relationship between Perceived Behavioral Control and Intention. Conclusions show that the influence of culture on intention, effectively, varies by context.Downloads
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References
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Carr, J. C., & Sequeira, J. M. (2007). Prior family business exposure as intergenerational influence and entrepreneurial intent: A theory of planned behavior approach. Journal of Business Research, 60 (10), 1090–1098
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Fayolle, A., Gailly, B., & Lassas–Clerc, N. (2006). Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education programmes: a new methodology. Journal of European industrial training, 30(9), 701–720.
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Guido, G., Marcati, A., & Peluso, A. M. (2011). “Nature and antecedents of a marketing approach according to Italian SME entrepreneurs, A structural equation modeling approach”. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(4), 342–360.
Harris, M. L., & Gibson, S. G. (2008). Examining the entrepreneurial attitudes of US business students. Education & Training, 50(7), 568–581
Hayes, A. F., & Scharkow, M. (2013). The relative trustworthiness of inferential tests of the indirect effect in statistical mediation analysis: Does method really matter? Psychological Science, 24(10), 1918–1927.
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028
Hechavarria, M., & Reynolds, P. (2009). Cultural norms & business startup: The impact of national values on opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 417–437.
Homer, P M., & Kahle, L.R. (1988). A structural Equation test of the value attitude–
behavior hierarchy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(4),
638–646.
Hofstede, G. (1980): Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do American Theories Apply Abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9(1), 42–63.
Iakovleva, T., Kolvereid, L. & Stephan, U. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions in developing and developed countries. Education+ Training, 53(5), 353–370.
Jogiyanto, (2007) Sistem Informasi Keperilakuan, Yogyakarta, Andi Publisher.
Kautonen, T., Luoto, S., & Tornikoski, E. T. (2010). Influence of work history on entrepreneurial intentions in ‘prime age’ and ‘third age’: A preliminary study. International small business journal, 28(6), 583–601.
Kolvereid, L. (1996). “Prediction of Employment status choice intentions”.
Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 21(1). 47–57.
Krueger, N. F., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 18, 91–91.
Krueger, N. F., & Carsrud, A. L. (1993). Entrepreneurial intentions: applying the theory of planned behaviour. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 5(4), 315–330.
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of business venturing, 15(5), 411–432.
Le, A. T. (1999). Empirical studies of self‐employment. Journal of Economic surveys, 13(4), 381–416.
Liñan, F. (2008). Skill and value perceptions: how do they affect entrepreneurial intentions? International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4(3), 257–272.
Liñan, F., & Chen, Y. W. (2009). “Development and cross–cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intention”. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 33(3), 593–617.
Manolova, T.S., Eunni, R.V., & Gyoshev, B.S. (2008). Institutional environments for entrepreneurship: evidence from emerging economies in Eastern Europe. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 31(1), 203–218.
Miner, J. B. (2001). Industrial Organizational Psychology, New York, McGraw–Hill.
Mohamed, Z., Rezai, G., Mad, N. S., & Muhammad Mu'az Mahmud (2012). Enhancing young graduates' intention towards entrepreneurship development in Malaysia. Education & Training, 54(7), 605–618.
Mueller, S. L., & Thomas, A. S. (2001). Culture and entrepreneurial potential: A nine country study of locus of control and innovativeness. Journal of business venturing, 16(1), 51–75.
Nilsson A., Borgstede, C. V., & Biel, A. (2004). Willingness to accept climate change strategy: The effect values and norms. Journal of environmental Psychology, 24(3), 267–277.
Oficina Económica y Comercial de España. (2016). Informe económico y comercial. Ministerio de Economía Industria Y Competitividad, 99. Retrieved from http://www.comercio.gob.es/tmpDocsCanalPais/D8DA906424E80E4A58A6F960100C9E63.pdf
Paul, J., & Gupta, P. (2014). Process and intensity of internationalization of IT firms–Evidence from India. International Business Review, 23(3), 594–603.
Paul, J., Hermel, P., & Srivatava, A. (2017). Entrepreneurial intentions—theory and evidence from Asia, America, and Europe. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 15(3), 324–351.
Peterman, N. E., & Kennedy, J. (2003). Enterprise education: Influencing students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 28(2), 129–144.
Prieto, L., Wang, L., Hinrichs, K. T., & Aguirre–Milling, H. (2010). Propensity for self–employment: contrasting the USA and Mexico. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 17(3), 315–333.
Rhodes, R, E., & Courneya, K. S. (2003). Investigating multiple components of attitude, subjective norms, perceived control: An examination the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain. British journal of social psychology, 23(42),129–146.
Rimal, R. N., & Real, K. (2003). Understanding the influence of perceived norms on behaviors. International Communication Association.
Sánchez, J. and Yurrebaso, A. (2008). Are young Mexicans more entrepreneurial than Spanish and Portuguese? The role of the self–reinforcing property of entrepreneurship, RENT XXII—Research in Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Covilhã, Portugal. November 20–21.
Sánchez, J. (2009). Aprendizaje social e intenciones emprendedoras: un estudio comparativo entre México, España y Portugal. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41 (1), 109–119.
Sánchez, J. C. (2010). Evaluación de la personalidad emprendedora: Validez factorial del cuestionario de orientación emprendedora (COE). Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(1), 41–52.
Sampedro, I. R., Fernández–Laviada, A., & Crespo, Á. H. (2013). Aplicación de la teoría de la acción razonada al ámbito emprendedor en un contexto universitario/Applying the theory of reasoned action to entrepreneurship within a university setting. Investigaciones Regionales, 26, 141–158.
Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship, 72–90.
Shaw, E., & de Bruin, A. (2013). Reconsidering capitalism: the promise of social innovation and social entrepreneurship? International Small Business Journal, 31(7), 737–746.
Scholten, V., Kemp, R. y Omta, S. W. F., (2004). Entrepreneurship for life: The entrepreneurial intention among academics in the life sciences. European Summer University Conference, pp.1–15.
Shook, C., & Bratianu, C. (2010). “Entrepreneur intent in a transitional economy: An application of the theory of planned behavior to Rumanian student”. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6, 231–247.
Schwarz, E. J., Wdowiak, M. A., Almer–Jarz, D. A., & Breitenecker, R. J. (2009). “The effects on attitudes and perceived environment conditions on students’ entrepreneurial intent: An Austrian perspective”. Education + Training. 51(4), 272–291.
Solesvick, M. Z., Westhead, P., Kolvereid, I., & Matlay, H. (2012). Student intentions to become self–employed: The Ukrainian context. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 19(3), 441–460.
Tiwari, P., Bhat, A. K., & Tikoria, J. (2017). An empirical analysis of the factors affecting social entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 7(1), 1–25.
Tkachev, A. & Kolvereid, L (1999). “Self–employment intentions among Russian students”. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development. 11(3), 269 –80.
Tornikoski, E. T., Erno T., & Kautonen, T. (2009). Enterprise in Sunset Career? Entrepreneurial Intentions in the Ageing Population. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 8(2), 278– 291.
Uslay, C., Teach, R. D., and Schwartz, R. G. (2002): “Promoting Entrepreneurship for Economic Development: A Cross–Cultural Analysis of Attitudinal Differences About Entrepreneurship”, Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 4(2), 101–118.
Williams, C. (2009). The motives of off–the–books entrepreneurs: necessity–or opportunity–driven? International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 203–217.
Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial Self‐Efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship Education1. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 31(3), 387–406.
Zhang, Y., Duysters, G., & Cloodt, M. (2014). The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students' entrepreneurial intention. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(3), 62.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 179–211.
Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self–efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 665–683.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the attitude–behavior relation: Reasoned and automatic processes. European review of social psychology, 11(1), 1–33.
Aldrich, H. E., & Cliff, J. E. (2003). The pervasive effects of family on entrepreneurship: Toward a family embeddedness perspective. Journal of business venturing, 18(5), 573–596.
Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). “Efficacy of the theory of planned behavior: A meta analytic review”. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471–499.
Autio, E. H., Keeley, R., Klofsten, M., GC Parker, G., & Hay, M. (2001). Entrepreneurial intent among students in Scandinavia and in the USA. Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies, 2(2), 145–160.
Bosma, N., Acs, Z. J., Autio, E., Coduras, A., and Levie, J. (2008): Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. 2008 executive report, Global Entrepreneurship.
Research Consortium (GERA), Wellesley, Massachusetts and London.
Bretones, F. D. y Silva, M. (2009). Cultura, sociedad, educación y comportamiento emprendedor. En F.D. Bretones (coord.) Comportamiento emprendedor en el ámbito universitario: personas y sociedad, 93–109. Granada: Editorial de la Universidad de Granada.
Bureau, P. (2015). Population Bulletien (Vol. 70).
Cabana–Villca, R; Cortes–Castillo, I; Plaza–Pasten, D; Castillo–Vergara, M; Alvarez–Marin, A (2013). Análisis de Las Capacidades Emprendedoras Potenciales y Efectivas en Alumnos de Centros de Educación Superior. Journal of Technology Management & Innovation, 8(1), 65–75.
Carr, J. C., & Sequeira, J. M. (2007). Prior family business exposure as intergenerational influence and entrepreneurial intent: A theory of planned behavior approach. Journal of Business Research, 60 (10), 1090–1098
Díaz–Casero, J. C., Ferreira, J. J., M., Hernández Mogollón, R., & Barata Raposo, M. L. (2012). Influence of institutional environment on entrepreneurial intention: A comparative study of two countries university students. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 8(1), 55–74.
do Paço, A. M. F., Ferreira, J. M., Raposo, M., Gouveia, R. G., & Dinis, A. (2011). Behaviours and entrepreneurial intention: Empirical findings about secondary students. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 20–38.
Fayolle, A., Gailly, B., & Lassas–Clerc, N. (2006). Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education programmes: a new methodology. Journal of European industrial training, 30(9), 701–720.
Fisbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Franco, M., Haase, H., & Lautenschläger, A. (2010). Students' entrepreneurial intentions: an inter–regional comparison. Education+ Training, 52(4), 260–275.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Consortium (2013). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: National Reports, Portugal. Retrieved November 9, 2017 at http://www.gemconsortium.org/report/49189.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Consortium (2015). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Global Report 2015–2016.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Consortium (2016). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Global Report 2016–2017.
Guido, G., Marcati, A., & Peluso, A. M. (2011). “Nature and antecedents of a marketing approach according to Italian SME entrepreneurs, A structural equation modeling approach”. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(4), 342–360.
Harris, M. L., & Gibson, S. G. (2008). Examining the entrepreneurial attitudes of US business students. Education & Training, 50(7), 568–581
Hayes, A. F., & Scharkow, M. (2013). The relative trustworthiness of inferential tests of the indirect effect in statistical mediation analysis: Does method really matter? Psychological Science, 24(10), 1918–1927.
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028
Hechavarria, M., & Reynolds, P. (2009). Cultural norms & business startup: The impact of national values on opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 417–437.
Homer, P M., & Kahle, L.R. (1988). A structural Equation test of the value attitude–
behavior hierarchy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(4),
638–646.
Hofstede, G. (1980): Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do American Theories Apply Abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9(1), 42–63.
Iakovleva, T., Kolvereid, L. & Stephan, U. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions in developing and developed countries. Education+ Training, 53(5), 353–370.
Jogiyanto, (2007) Sistem Informasi Keperilakuan, Yogyakarta, Andi Publisher.
Kautonen, T., Luoto, S., & Tornikoski, E. T. (2010). Influence of work history on entrepreneurial intentions in ‘prime age’ and ‘third age’: A preliminary study. International small business journal, 28(6), 583–601.
Kolvereid, L. (1996). “Prediction of Employment status choice intentions”.
Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 21(1). 47–57.
Krueger, N. F., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 18, 91–91.
Krueger, N. F., & Carsrud, A. L. (1993). Entrepreneurial intentions: applying the theory of planned behaviour. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 5(4), 315–330.
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of business venturing, 15(5), 411–432.
Le, A. T. (1999). Empirical studies of self‐employment. Journal of Economic surveys, 13(4), 381–416.
Liñan, F. (2008). Skill and value perceptions: how do they affect entrepreneurial intentions? International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4(3), 257–272.
Liñan, F., & Chen, Y. W. (2009). “Development and cross–cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intention”. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 33(3), 593–617.
Manolova, T.S., Eunni, R.V., & Gyoshev, B.S. (2008). Institutional environments for entrepreneurship: evidence from emerging economies in Eastern Europe. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 31(1), 203–218.
Miner, J. B. (2001). Industrial Organizational Psychology, New York, McGraw–Hill.
Mohamed, Z., Rezai, G., Mad, N. S., & Muhammad Mu'az Mahmud (2012). Enhancing young graduates' intention towards entrepreneurship development in Malaysia. Education & Training, 54(7), 605–618.
Mueller, S. L., & Thomas, A. S. (2001). Culture and entrepreneurial potential: A nine country study of locus of control and innovativeness. Journal of business venturing, 16(1), 51–75.
Nilsson A., Borgstede, C. V., & Biel, A. (2004). Willingness to accept climate change strategy: The effect values and norms. Journal of environmental Psychology, 24(3), 267–277.
Oficina Económica y Comercial de España. (2016). Informe económico y comercial. Ministerio de Economía Industria Y Competitividad, 99. Retrieved from http://www.comercio.gob.es/tmpDocsCanalPais/D8DA906424E80E4A58A6F960100C9E63.pdf
Paul, J., & Gupta, P. (2014). Process and intensity of internationalization of IT firms–Evidence from India. International Business Review, 23(3), 594–603.
Paul, J., Hermel, P., & Srivatava, A. (2017). Entrepreneurial intentions—theory and evidence from Asia, America, and Europe. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 15(3), 324–351.
Peterman, N. E., & Kennedy, J. (2003). Enterprise education: Influencing students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 28(2), 129–144.
Prieto, L., Wang, L., Hinrichs, K. T., & Aguirre–Milling, H. (2010). Propensity for self–employment: contrasting the USA and Mexico. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 17(3), 315–333.
Rhodes, R, E., & Courneya, K. S. (2003). Investigating multiple components of attitude, subjective norms, perceived control: An examination the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain. British journal of social psychology, 23(42),129–146.
Rimal, R. N., & Real, K. (2003). Understanding the influence of perceived norms on behaviors. International Communication Association.
Sánchez, J. and Yurrebaso, A. (2008). Are young Mexicans more entrepreneurial than Spanish and Portuguese? The role of the self–reinforcing property of entrepreneurship, RENT XXII—Research in Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Covilhã, Portugal. November 20–21.
Sánchez, J. (2009). Aprendizaje social e intenciones emprendedoras: un estudio comparativo entre México, España y Portugal. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41 (1), 109–119.
Sánchez, J. C. (2010). Evaluación de la personalidad emprendedora: Validez factorial del cuestionario de orientación emprendedora (COE). Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(1), 41–52.
Sampedro, I. R., Fernández–Laviada, A., & Crespo, Á. H. (2013). Aplicación de la teoría de la acción razonada al ámbito emprendedor en un contexto universitario/Applying the theory of reasoned action to entrepreneurship within a university setting. Investigaciones Regionales, 26, 141–158.
Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship, 72–90.
Shaw, E., & de Bruin, A. (2013). Reconsidering capitalism: the promise of social innovation and social entrepreneurship? International Small Business Journal, 31(7), 737–746.
Scholten, V., Kemp, R. y Omta, S. W. F., (2004). Entrepreneurship for life: The entrepreneurial intention among academics in the life sciences. European Summer University Conference, pp.1–15.
Shook, C., & Bratianu, C. (2010). “Entrepreneur intent in a transitional economy: An application of the theory of planned behavior to Rumanian student”. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6, 231–247.
Schwarz, E. J., Wdowiak, M. A., Almer–Jarz, D. A., & Breitenecker, R. J. (2009). “The effects on attitudes and perceived environment conditions on students’ entrepreneurial intent: An Austrian perspective”. Education + Training. 51(4), 272–291.
Solesvick, M. Z., Westhead, P., Kolvereid, I., & Matlay, H. (2012). Student intentions to become self–employed: The Ukrainian context. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 19(3), 441–460.
Tiwari, P., Bhat, A. K., & Tikoria, J. (2017). An empirical analysis of the factors affecting social entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 7(1), 1–25.
Tkachev, A. & Kolvereid, L (1999). “Self–employment intentions among Russian students”. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development. 11(3), 269 –80.
Tornikoski, E. T., Erno T., & Kautonen, T. (2009). Enterprise in Sunset Career? Entrepreneurial Intentions in the Ageing Population. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 8(2), 278– 291.
Uslay, C., Teach, R. D., and Schwartz, R. G. (2002): “Promoting Entrepreneurship for Economic Development: A Cross–Cultural Analysis of Attitudinal Differences About Entrepreneurship”, Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 4(2), 101–118.
Williams, C. (2009). The motives of off–the–books entrepreneurs: necessity–or opportunity–driven? International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5, 203–217.
Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial Self‐Efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship Education1. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 31(3), 387–406.
Zhang, Y., Duysters, G., & Cloodt, M. (2014). The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students' entrepreneurial intention. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 10(3), 62.
Published
2018-05-30
How to Cite
Sánchez-García, J. C., Ward Mayens, A., Vargas Morúa, G., Flórez Daza, J. L., & Hernández Sánchez, B. (2018). How does Cultural Norms Influence Entrepreneurial Intention? A Cross Cultural Study. Journal of Business, Universidad Del Pacífico (Lima, Peru), 10(1), 52-69. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21678/jb.2018.877
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